Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to examine John Locke’s Essay concerning Human Understanding and focus on its importance as an ideological background for spatial conception in the early seventeenth century English scene. The notion of personal experience as a means of spatial perception, which is so thoroughly cultivated in Locke’s essay, can also be defined through the travels and voyages of the 17th century. Expeditions and travels provide individuals with a new way of social, ethical, and aesthetical evaluation based on the experience of different civilizations and cultures. Personal experience, which becomes the only way of understanding cosmos, is finally the means to comprehend the human nature. It is though obvious that the experience gained through the travels has a particular importance when studying the human subject and its relation to the spatial perception and representation. Locke’s way of spatial perception influenced not only philosophers but also architects, gardeners, landscape artists and urban planners of the time. It is also clear that this notion of empirical perception of Nature has been the reference of contemporary spatial and architectural concepts and has always been a source of artistic inspiration. Nowadays, considering architectural space, as a sequence of spatial experience constitutes an interesting conceptual approach, which is mostly influenced by empirical philosophy.
Locke’s Life
John Locke was born on August 29, 1632. He entered Westminster school in 1646, and passed to Christ Church, Oxford, as a junior student, in 1652. Locke found the Aristotelian philosophy he was taught at Oxford of little use. Locke received his B.A. in February 1656. Locke knew all of these men and their work. Locke, Boyle and Newton were all founding or early members of the English Royal Society. Sydenham[1] was one of the most famous English physicians of the 17th century and Locke did medical research with him. Locke and Newton became friends after Locke’s return from Holland in 1688.When he did read Descartes, he saw the great French philosopher as providing a viable alternative to the sterile Aristotelianism he had been taught at Oxford. In 1666 Locke had a fateful meeting with Lord Ashley In 1667 Locke did move to London becoming not only Lord Ashley’s personal physician, but secretary, researcher, political operative and friend. Living with him Locke found himself at the very heart of English politics in the 1670s and 1680s[2]. In 1674 went to France[3]. Locke returned to England in 1688[4]. After his return from exile, Locke published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In 1696 the Board of Trade was revived. Locke played an important part in its revival and served as the most influential member on it until 1700. After his retirement from the Board of Trade in 1700, Locke remained in retirement at Oates until his death on Sunday 28 October 1704.
The Essay is divided into four books; the first is a polemic against the doctrine of innate principles and ideas. The second deals with ideas, the third with words, and the fourth with knowledge.
Ideas in General
All the objects of the understanding are described as ideas, and ideas are spoken of as being in the mind (Intro. 2; Bk. 2:1:5; Bk. 2:8:8). This wide use of the term "idea" is inherited from Descartes. The existence of ideas needs no proof: "everyone is conscious of them in himself, and men's words and actions will satisfy him that they are in others." All our ideas, he says, come from experience.
All ideas come from sensation or reflection. Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas:- How comes it to be furnished? … To this I answer, in one word, from experience. In that all our knowledge is founded;
The mind has no innate ideas. Our observation is the source of most of the ideas, which we have, and, as it depends "wholly upon our senses," is called "sensation."
Simple and Complex Ideas
There are no innate ideas "stamped upon the mind" from birth. Thus he holds that "space and extension" is a simple idea given both by sight and by touch that helps persons imagine the idea of infinity.
Distance or space, in its simple abstract conception … I call expansion ... The mind, having got the idea of the length of any part of expansion … can … repeat that idea … as often as it will, till it equals the distance of any parts of the earth one from another, and increase thus till it amounts to the distance of the sun or remotest star. By such a progression … it can proceed and pass beyond all those lengths, and find nothing to stop it’s going on … How we come by the idea of infinity … the power of enlarging his idea of space by further additions remaining still the same, he hence takes the idea of infinite space.
Knowledge of the Self, and God
In the fourth book of his Essay Locke applies the results of the earlier books to determine the nature and extent of knowledge. Concerning the self, Locke agrees with Descartes that the existence of the self is implied in every state of consciousness. Every element of our experience, every idea of which we are conscious, is a certificate of our own existence, as the subject of that experience: As for our own existence, we perceive it so plainly and so certainly, that it neither needs nor is capable of any proof.
So much as we ourselves consider and comprehend of truth and reason, so much we possess of real and true knowledge... (Bk1:III:24)
For nothing can be more evident to us than our own existence. I think, I reason, I feel pleasure and pain: can any of these be more evident to me than my own existence?
being certain that there is a God, and how we may come by this certainty, I think we need go no further than ourselves, and that undoubted knowledge we have of our own existence … from the consideration of ourselves, and what we infallibly find in our own constitutions, our reason leads us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth…
Locke’s arguments and exotic countries
If we take a closer look into the essay we will be impressed by the fact that Locke continuously uses examples of the way of life and the beliefs strange or exotic countries to support his arguments. The way other nations perceive the world and the different ways of life in other places consist an important, and sometimes the only, evidence that there are not innate principles. In the second chapter of book one when trying to prove that there are no innate practical principles he argues that:
in some countries, put them (their children) into the same graves with their mothers, if they die in childbirth; or despatch them, if a pretended astrologer declares them to have unhappy stars?
And are there not places where, at a certain age, they kill or expose their parents, without any remorse at all? In a part of Asia, the sick, when their case comes to be thought desperate, are carried out and laid on the earth before they are dead;
The notion of other “places” and other “civilizations” noticeably becomes vital. To strengthen his point of view he even focuses on some travel books that bare witness of particular behaviors in other distant societies:
Garcilasso de la Vega tells us of a people in Peru which were wont to fat and eat the children they got on their female captives … the virtues whereby the Tououpinambos believed they merited paradise, were revenge, and eating abundance of their enemies
if we look abroad to take a view of men as they are, we shall find that they have remorse, in one place, for doing or omitting that which others, in another place, think they merit by
The way Locke constructs his arguments has nothing to do with a traditional philosophy treatise. His world is not any more the world of classical or medieval philosophy. He does not refer to other books neither does he criticize the work of other philosophers. The “land” which Locke is more familiar to is the unknown land of the voyages. This is the source of the new empirical knowledge. This becomes more extreme in the chapter III when Locke has to provide evidence that the idea of God is not innate either. It seems that even when thinking of such a significant matter he trusts only empirical facts and testimonies based on travel accounts: